Individual Behaviour - Learning

                                               LEARNING

    Learning means a change in behavior acquired through experience. Learning may begin with the cognitive activity of developing knowledge about a subject, which leads to a change

Factors influencing learning process:

• Internal factors: Perception, memory, motivation, attitudes, ability level, emotions and personality
• External factors: Relationships, rewards and punishments, environment, context and methods of learning 

Theories of learning:

Classical conditioning-Ivan Pavlov:

                 The process of modifying behavior so that pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response is known as classical conditioning.

• Experiment done with: Animals (primarily dogs)
• Unconditioned response: Production of saliva
• Unconditioned stimulus: Presentation of meat   
• Conditioned stimulus    : Bell sound

Limitations:

•  Humans are more complex than dogs and less amenable to simple cause and effect conditioning
• Behavioral environments are complex and not very amenable to single stimulus-response manipulations
• Complex human decision making can override simple conditioning

Operant Conditioning- B.F.Skinner:

    The process of modifying behavior by following specific behaviors with positive or negative consequences is known as operant conditioning. These influence behavior through three strategies: Reinforcement, Punishment and Extinction.

Reinforcement is the attempt to develop or strengthen desirable behavior by either bestowing positive consequences of withholding negative consequences. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive consequence follows a desirable behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when managers withhold a negative consequence after a desirable behavior.

Schedules of reinforcement:

• Continuous: Reinforcer follows every response
• Intermittent: Reinforcer does not follow every response
• Fixed Ratio: A fixed number of responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs
• Variable Ratio: A varying or random number of responses must be emitted before reinforcement occurs
• Fixed interval: The first response after a specific period of time has elapsed is reinforced
• Variable interval: The first response after a varying or random period of time have elapsed is reinforced

Punishment is the attempt to eliminate or weaken undesirable behavior by either bestowing negative consequences or withholding positive consequences.

Extinction is an alternative to punishing undesirable behavior, an attempt to weaken a behavior by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. Extinction may be most effective when used in conjunction with the positive reinforcement of desirable behaviors.

Social Learning Theory – Albert Bandura:

Learning occurs when we observe other people and model their behavior.

Task-specific self efficacy: An individual’s beliefs and expectancies about his or her ability to perform a specific task effectively

Cognitive Theories of Learning:

The cognitive approach to learning is based on the Gestalt school of thought and draws on Jung’s theory of personality differences.

Information Gathering:

• Intuitors: Prefer theoretical frameworks   
• Sensors: Prefer specific, empirical data

Decision Making:

• Thinkers: Prefer analysis of data and information
•   Feelers: Prefer interpersonal involvement

Goal setting theory – Edwin Locke, Gary Latham, John M.Ivancevich

• The process of establishing desired results that guide and direct behavior
• Goals crystallize the sense of purpose and mission that drives success
• Goals must be SMART – Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Time bound
• Goals increase work motivation and task performance
• Goals reduce role stress, conflict and ambiguity
•  Goals improve performance evaluation